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Fructose is readily absorbed and rapidly metabolized by human liver. For thousands of years humans consumed fructose amounting to 16–20 grams per day, largely from fresh fruits. Westernization of diets has resulted in significant increases in added fructose, leading to typical daily consumptions amounting to 85–100 grams of fructose per day.
The exposure of the liver to such large quantities of fructose leads to rapid stimulation of lipogenesis and TG accumulation, which in turn contributes to reduced insulin sensitivity and hepatic insulin resistance/glucose intolerance. These negative effects of fructose are the reason that fructose metabolism has gained recent research attention. Interestingly, small catalytic quantities of fructose can have positive effects, and actually decrease the glycemic response to glucose loads, and improve glucose tolerance. These effects are also observed without any changes in insulin responses and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) and TG levels [40,41]. In 1976, sugar substitutes such as fructose had been found to offer the 'advantage' of a 'better' utilization in conditions of limited insulin production. Fructose had a smaller influence on serum insulin concentrations than glucose, and no influence on plasma glucose levels. At that time, this evidence was considered to support fructose as a positive treatment for diabetic control [40]. In 1986 HFCS were even proposed as a low-cost substitute for fructose in diabetic management. Based on these early observations, nutritive sweeteners were considered safe by the Food and Drug Administration, although, it has now been found that intakes above 25% of total energy consumed will cause hypertriglyceridemia and gastrointestinal symptoms [42]. Even with the early positive results, researchers noticed accompanying "unfavorable" influences of these so-called diabetic sugars on obesity and weight gain. Certain metabolic differences exist between glucose and fructose, and the results that were once thought favorable, proved exacerbating to insulin resistance and obesity. In a study comparing normal and diabetic patients, glycemic effects of HFCS were compared to glucose. The negative results of HFCS on immunoreactive insulin, glycemic effect, and immunoreactive C-peptide did not support its use as a substitute for glucose in diabetic patients [43].
Unfortunately, one out of every four children in the United States consumes above the recommended 25% of total energy intake from sweeteners [42] and the harmful effects of fructose have been extensively studied in healthy, non-diabetic patients. Studies involving commonly consumed fruit juices showed that natural fructose carbohydrates can alter lipid and protein oxidation biomarkers in the blood, and mediate oxidative stress responses in vivo [44]. A comparative study by Raben et al. examined overweight men and women who consumed fructose-containing sucrose, as opposed to artificial sweeteners as supplements to their diet. Weight, fat mass, and blood pressure were found to be lower in the artificial sweetener-consuming group compared to the sucrose-consuming group, and the sucrose group did not decrease intake of other nutrients to compensate for their increased calorie consumption from the sucrose. Subjects consuming the sweetener did not exhibit increases in energy intake, weight, and blood pressure that seen in the sucrose-consuming subjects [45]. Research in the metabolism of fructose has left more questions about the difference between short-term positive effects, and the negative effects of chronic, long-term use of fructose sugars [46].
The long-term negative effects can include changes in digestion, absorption, plasma hormone levels, appetite, and hepatic metabolism, leading to development of insulin resistance, diabetes, obesity, and inevitably cardiovascular disease.
http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/2/1/5
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